Spring 2019 Chapter 1 Notes:

What Actually IS Philosophy?



Study of Thoughts
Broadly the study of the "nature of knowledge" reality, existence, reason, values, beauty, time causation, language, government.

-Specifically could be the study of the above as applied to anything – i.e. – the philosophy of Science, History, or business …………. Or bowling, hunting, or quilting.   

Philosophy may or may not be done as an academic discipline.

Academic Philosophy:  You study it in college
Practical Philosophy:  The art of applying philosophical skills to normal problems.
Growing Need for critical thinking skills in 2019.  It used to be "here's the job, do it"  Now it might often be, "here's what we want, create it".  

 

-Philosophy has a Critical Attitude – one of Questioning.

-Seeking Truth:  Can be Skeptical, yet Open-Minded.

-Having “Rational Disinteredness”.  A good referee has this.  A bad referee gets sucked into the game.
 

Philosophy and being Practical.

-See All Options to a problem, not just what society has conditioned you to see.

-Think outside the Box, but in a structured way.

-Questions absolutely everything, but in a respectful way.

-To see the Other Perspectives and Other People’s Perspectives.

-A Key to understand how other people might think.

-A Key to understand what might be motivating someone or someone’s actions.

-It is possible to see philosophy in almost everything.

-It helps you to try to see it through the eye of the critic, regardless of how basic they might

  seem, or how irrational they might seem.

The ability to question, reason, negotiate, pass rational, logical mostly non-emotional judgment, and to continuously weigh options pays big bucks and is in large demand. 

-There is no mystical value to philosophy, but it can be therapeutically good for a person.

-Philosophy “can” help a person to rise above his/her own cultural bias/acceptance.

                -Values and one’s philosophy are connected.  Thought and action are connected.

                -It is possible for an entire culture to develop a philosophy that is generally not

                acceptable.

: Nazi Germany

: American Slavery

-Philosophy can help a person understand that everyone has bias to a degree, some more than others.

-Author suggests Philosophy is practical for understanding assimilation of Technology/21^st Century Skills.

-Oracle of Delphi:  Know Thyself.

Philosophy’s Body of Knowledge

-Philosophy has a body of knowledge like any other academic discipline such as math, or history.

               
-Philosophy has different opinions:  For example:  All knowledge must be rational and come from a-priori principles (Descartes), or there are no a-priori principles therefore all Knowledge must be based on experience, and therefore the most we can hope for is a feeling of what might be true (Hume).

-Some argue that philosophy was the first body of knowledge.

-Philosophy’s Body of Knowledge is sometimes cultural:

                -Western Philosophy:  Based on Greeks and Romans.

                -Eastern Philosophy: Based on Eastern Culture and Eastern Religions.

-Philosophy’s Body of Knowledge has various directions that have similar themes:  The main veins of philosophy are:

-Metaphysics  - Purpose -  anything that deals with purpose

-Epistemology – Knowing - Anything that deals with “How do we know what we know”?   Epistemology sometimes does not deal with metaphysics.  Epistemology often asks the question of whether we know by experience or by innate truths.

-Ethics -Right and Wrong:

-Logic -Making Sense:   In a sequential and rational way.

-Aesthetics -Beauty:  Asks the question of what beauty actually is. 

-Each of these themes have various dimensions, and can then have depth from that dimension – or a “body of knowledge within the body of knowledge”.  Example:  Calculus requires an understanding of Trigonometry which is related to Mathematics.  Logical Positivism requires an understanding of Empiricism, which is related to Philosophy.  

-Philosophy has basic “themes” that are “perennial” (come back again and again)
                -Is human action pre-determined or not, or both and to what degree?  (A metaphysical

                argument)

                -Is knowledge based on known truths and rationalized from there, or do we experience

                all knowledge? (An epistemological argument)

                -What is good conduct and how should we therefore live?  (Ethical)

                -Is human purpose to:  Have Fun, be dutiful, be kind, all of the above or none of the

                above? (Metaphysical)

   -Philosophy DOES have an element of religion, but is it one of many elements.

                -What is beauty, and is there such a thing as pure beauty? (Aesthetic)

                -What is “good” What is “just” What is “truth”?  (Aesthetic and Metaphysical)

                -What is our responsibility, if any, to the state?

Other Large Commonly Studies Veins:  In these veins of the body of knowledge of philosophy, they are all actually elements of one or all of the above:

Political Philosophy: What is government?  What should be the role of government?  Is there 

a better or best government? 

Philosophy of History:  What is history?  Is it what really happened or what we wanted it to 

be?   Is history actually journalism?  Is there history or are there “histories”?  If there are only 

“histories, then is there really “history”?  Is true history a history of events or of ideas and 

which is greater?

Philosophy of Science:  What is science?  What qualifies something as being scientific? What

 is the scientific method, and who says that is the right method?

Philosophy of Education: What is education?  What is the purpose of education?

Philosophy of Bias – phenomenology – the chance and degree that bias can be eliminated.

Philosophy or Race, Religion, Culture, Liberalism, Conservatism

There are many other large categories commonly studied.

Minor Philosophies

Philosophy of ________________ (You insert basically whatever you want)

Philosophy Based on Regions/Time Frames/Religions:

Western Philosophy:

Eastern:

Ancient Egyptian:

Jewish

Christian

Buddhist

40’s USA – To defeat the one defined enemy (while today often no one knows who the actual

                    enemy is)

50’s USA – Prosperity - Conservatism

60’s USA - Opposition to the government/cultural revolution.

Philosophy based on Specific Philosophers/Leaders/Artists:

Plato

Aristotle

Kantian

Hegelian

Husseral/Ponty - Phenomenology

Jeffersonian/Hamiltonian Arguments

Marx/Adam Smith Arguments

Whitman/Emerson/Thoreau –(American Writers)

Dewey (American Educator)

John Lennon (Singer-Song Writer)

Senator Grassley (Political)

Claude Debussy (Musician)

Picasso (Artist)

Traits of Most all Philosophy:

1                  Love of Wisdom

2          Seeking Truth

3          Reason

4                 Study of Thought

5          Critical Questioning

                   Open Mindedness

Periods of Philosophy:

1.      Ancient:  About 500 BC to 200 AD

–Pre Greek

-Classical Greek:  Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

-Hellenistic

-Roman

    2. Medieval:  Around 200 AD to 1650-ish

-Mostly Catholic Philosophers (Scholastic)

-Protestant Reformation in the 1500d’s (printing press 

 invented about 100 years earlier).

3.      Modern:  1650-1900:  Science became more important.  It was no longer always required to connect philosophy to a deity.

4.      Contemporary:  1900 – (2000?): 

Contemporary Analytical:  More of an analytical focus on what they can conclude as fact in the physical world.

Contemporary Continental:  Focus on freedom, being, meaning, and other metaphysical concerns.

5.      Next period?   (2000-Present).  Philosophy after the onset of the internet.

Greek Philosophers

Pre-Greek: Island of Miletus (500 BC) – Discussions of what the Earth is made up of.

                -Atomists:  Anaximander, Pythagoras

                -Zeno:  Paradox of Movement

                -Had arguments about infinity and divisibility

Greeks

                -All Greeks believed in fate and the Devine. 

-They had no mind-set of a life without purpose.

-Purpose, fate, and a spiritual dimension all existed a-priori without question.

Socrates:  (No real proof that he actually existed)

                -The Socratic Method:

                -The unexamined Life not worth Living.

                -Moderation

                -Corruption of the Youth, Sentences to death by his peer.  Could have escaped.

Plato:

 -Student of Socrates.

-Wrote the Dialogues.

-Started the “academy” which was the first school.

-Practiced deductive reasoning, which is going from large ideas to small details.

-Believed in the concept of “forms” The idea = the Form

-Teleology:  The purpose of the forms.  The purposes are assigned. 

-Reality = the unseen world of ideas and the physical world of things, but the world of ideas is greater than the world of things.  The unseen world does not decay.  The seen physical world is always in decay.

-Plato Believed in the concept of a three dimensional person:  The Physical/Mental/Spiritual

-Plato Believed in the “Divided Line” concept between physical world and spiritual world.

                : Seen and unseen.

                : Decay and non-decay.

Aristotle:

-Student of Plato

-Later started his own school “Lyceum”

-Practiced inductive reasoning, which is going from small observations to large ideas.

                : This turned into the concept of “experimentation”

                : Aristotle believed in probability in experimentation.

                : This turned into the “Scientific Method” that we still use today.

-Aristotle was an extreme classifier and labeler.  He invented the “Classification System” for animals.

-Aristotle named many animals.

-Aristotle rejected forms.

-Aristotle believed that worrying about the unseen was a waste of time.

-Truth had to be seen and experienced and lived in the physical world.

-How we lived in the physical world matters – “ethics”.

Alexander (The Great): 

-Student of Aristotle

-Was not actually Greek – was from Macedonia

-Became a warrior, and conquered the known world.

-Spread Greek Culture throughout the world – known as “Hellenistic Culture”.

ETHICS – The idea of right/wrong, moral/immoral, good/bad.

Big questions in Ethics:

            -Are ethics based on Altruism or Self Preservation?

            -What is the role of Pleasure in Ethics?

            -What is the role of Duty in Ethics?

            -Are Ethics SET or do they CHANGE – or some of both?

Moral Responsibility:                 

-Dante’ PP 274.

            -There is No Escape from Moral Responsibility.

            -We all have moral standards by virtue of being human.

-Having no morals is a “moral-standard”, therefore no morals = morals.

Moral Suffering:  Unsure what the “right thing” is – leading to “moral dilemma”.

Common ways to deal with Moral Dilemmas:

            -find a moral authority.

            -change your moral standard and make whatever it is you are doing

             acceptable.

            -conclude that all values are about personal preference.

Problem with Moral Relativism: 

            -Principal of Non-contradiction

            -Some things appear self-evidently wrong while others appear relatively

             wrong. 

Current Reality 2017:  Physical health has been correlated with the ability to determine what is morally right.  In other words moral dilemmas make people sick, and that’s a medically proven fact. In fact the empirical and scientific evidence for this is becoming huge.

Freud:  (Psychological Determinist- probably the founder of psychology, but mostly now his theories are disputed): 

                        -Social Setting Determines “acceptable behavior”

                        -competition between desired behavior and acceptable

                        -violation leads to “guilt”.  People go to great means to avoid guilt.

                                    :make something non-acceptable – acceptable.

                                    Cultures do this over time

                                    :Deny it exists

The Six Schools of Ethics Introduced in Chapter five by Fallikowski:

1)    Character Ethics: Care (altruism), Pleasure, friendship, God, Physical/Mental/Spiritual - all matter all in moderation - Balance.

2)    Utilitarian – Maximize the good/minimize the bad – Relative.

3)    Deontologist (Kantian) – Right and wrong is Absolute – Duty Rules

4)    Feminine – Intuition – Relationship trumps Rationality.

5)    Existential Atheistic – Ethics is Art. Create your Ethics grand then!

6)    Objectivist Epistemologist)–Selfishness Rules!

Plato: 

          Physical/Mental/Spiritual Picture of Ethics

          Teleology:  Everything has a “purpose” and a “place”

          -People have an internal argument between “appetites” and

            “Spirit”. Everyone has physical, mental and spiritual needs and that’s okay, the  key is balance.  A tyrant is someone who is out of balance.

-“Reason” controls these. 

          -Finding Reason is finding “Moral Balance”

          -Argues that Moral Balance is hard to obtain.

Plato’s “Two Horses Analogy”:  Spirit and Appetite are held together by Rationality. Everyone has physical and mental needs and that’s okay. The key is Balance. A Tyrant is one who is out of balance.

Plato’s Teleology: “don’t judge a paper cutter by how it shovels snow”.

Teleology = Purpose (Metaphysical)

Timarachic:                   Spirit – athletic, achiever

Democratic                   Versatile – but can be without principal,

                                      Jack of all trades

Oligarchic                     Material Rules

Philosopher King          Balance

Tyrant                           Possessed by a “master passion”

Everyone has physical needs and status needs and THAT’S”s OKAY, and they are necessary.  These needs to be controlled by REASON.  Everything has a purpose, “Teleology”:  We find our purpose from finding the “Balance”.   “Purpose and Essence lies in the Balance”

Utilitarian Ethics:  Bentham and Mill

Key Words:  Relative and Utility (what make the most sense most of the time).

Key Things: No action is necessarily right or wrong.  Actions are moral if they maximize the net value of utility.

Utilitarianism was a Social Reform in England that later became a philosophy.  It was a social reform because of the Industrial Revolution in England.  Prior to Utility, Kings made the law. Kings were free to base law that could benefit them anyway they wanted with disregard to everyone else, and not in accord to the “masses” (arbitrary and capricious). Not all royal laws were that way but they “could be”.  There were no checks and balances. 

The need for objective government created the divisison of PARLEMENT AND THE OFFICE OF PRIME MINISTER. In America the parallel divisions were the legislature and the president.

The American Revolution thinkers had ideas from the French Revolution.  It was an idea that was about to “pop”.  It was the idea that utility leads to the construction of a “collective morality”. Utility leads to Democratic Laws.

To the Utilitarian - It’s vain to talk of the interests of the individual without talking about the interests of the community ( what does this mean?).

This blends with the industrial revolution in Europe where people were being exploited (used).  Child Labor, low wages and long hours, dangerous working conditions, no insurance – led to social reform.  The French Revolution basically was the rise of the middle class and that they wanted Rights.  Finally the American Revolution became Democracy.

Problems with Situational Ethics and Utilitarianism

1)    You may be conditioned to utilitarianism because you are American.

2)    Utilitarianism is mostly a system of government, not personal ethics.

3)    The thinkers behind utilitarianism (Bentham and Mill), were about government and social reform, not morality and philosophy; although it later became that way.

4)   Because of the effect of Utility on America, it’s hard to develop a pure Kantian or Platonic system without viewing the “RELATIVE” effect of action. 

  

Things that led to Utilitarianism were:

Child Labor and the Rise of the Middle Class.  At the time Kings made the law and they could be “arbitrary and capricious”.  There was a need for objective rules.  This also blends with the French Revolution and the American Revolution and Creation of the Constitution. 

Utilitarianism is a “Paradigm Shift” which was an idea ready to “Pop”.  This was the idea that utility or “What’s Practical” leads to “collective morality” and “democratic laws”.

Utility leads to collective morality and democratic laws

-The rise of unions is a utilitarian movement.

-Public Education is a utilitarian movement.

Problems with Utilitarianism:

          -You may be conditioned to it because you are American

          -It puts pleasure at the core (May not be a problem).

          -Is an argument for situational ethics over Kantian Ethics.

          -No action is necessarily wrong or right.  Actions are moral

            if they maximize the value of utility.

          -Utilitarianism can quickly become Machiavellian.  When

           the ends justify the means.

Existential Ethics (Atheistic) – Nietzsche

Reality and Ethics are an art form.   Morality is a man-made aesthetic creation, and we create our own morality as we are ultimately free.  All attempts to explain it any other way an easy way out.  Since we create our own morality it is necessary to create it well.  We must continuously transfer passion into creativity through strength, courage and pride.

Objectivist:  Rand

Key Words:   Rational Selfishness

                       Escape from Altruism

-Altruism is a form of selfishness

-Altruism is, in the end, destructive.

-Man must live for his/her own sake as if life is an ends in itself.

-Rational Selfishness is, in the end, productive and benefits everyone.

Kantian:  Absolute truth

          Categorical imperative

          Duty

Key things: Absolute truth is logically consistent, universally acceptable and unconditional.

          -The ends do not justify the means – EVER (which constitutes the debate between moral relativism and moral absolutism.

Actions are done from DUTY.

Goodness is duty and it is an ends in itself.

Happiness is NOT a Goal.  Balance is not a goal.

Feminist Ethics:

Intuitive morality

There are exceptions to all rules:  “anomalies” 

Morality is not structured by reason.

Reason is a male obsession and it does not consider intuition

“Relation” is more important than “reason”

“Care” is more important than “duty”

Stoicism: (from the Porch) 

Roman Empire’s Main Philosophy for over 500 Years.

Can be “kind of” negative, “kind of” orderly, “kind of” comical, “kind of” connected

Pre-Stoicism Ideas:

                -Skepticism:       Generally a questioner of the “status quo”.

                                -Sophists:            Life is a bunch of twisted words.

                                -Thespians:        Live is “tragedy”, and it is always a “comic”.

                -Cynicism:  This was the extreme version.

                                -All materials are worthless and evil for the human spirit.

                                -All powerful people are evil.

                                -Organized society is a joke.

                                -The skeptics and cynics were “too radical” for the majority.  Zeno created an acceptable

                                  form of skepticism and cynicism which changed and evolved as Rome changed and

  evolved.

-Fate:  Everything is a part of “Fate”.  “If it’s meant to be it will be”.

-“Meaningful Coincidence” – Things don’t happen by chance.

-Stoicism prefers the “Non-Emotional”.  It’s your fate, so deal with it.

-Logos:  Order, Control

Everything is connected and all answers are connected.

                                           Everything works in a “ordered system” with the universe and with mankind. 

                                                                -We need Cesar to be Cesar and ditch diggers to be ditch diggers

-Both are acting out their fates.  Both have meaningful purpose.

                               

                                -Critics of Stoicism argued that it was a ploy to hold Rome together.  It’s your “Fate” to

                                  Be a peasant and follow Cesar.  Enjoy the role you have, and don’t question stuff too

  Much.

HEDONISM and EPICURIANISM (Two Greek Philosophies Based on Pleasure).

Hedonism:  Pure Pleasure.

                -Aristippus founder – student of Plato. Went on his own.

               

                -Physical Pleasure = The Meaning of Life.

-The more intense the pleasure, the more meaning and purpose.

-Enjoy Pleasure without guilt, follow natural desires.

                -The Roman’s actually took this “to the next level”, and some of them somehow made

                  It fit in with Stoicism.

Epicureanism: Controlled Pleasure. 

-Epicurus (341 – 270 BC) Studied under Plato and Aristotle, but rejected many things.

                                -Started his own school (The Garden).

                                -Everyone was equal in The Garden.  First to treat women equally.

                -All Pleasure is good, but not all pleasure should be chosen.

                                -Momentary Pleasure

                                                -Kinetic Pleasure has a diminishing return.

                                                -Some momentary pleasure causes lasting pain.

                                                                -some pain created from pleasure is physical.

                                                                -some pain created form pleasure is mental.

                                -Lasting Pleasure

                                                -Grows rather than diminishes.

                                                -Based on Static Circumstances.

                                                -Based less on physical, more on mental and spiritual

                                                -Ataraxia:  The lack of physical pain and mental anguish.

                                                                -A constant life of not having troubles.

                                                                -A belief that pleasure = purpose (same as Hedonism)

                                                                -A belief in moderation and balance must exist.

 Existentialism: 

-The idea that we create our own purpose.

-The idea that we have Total Free Will.

-The lack of Fate.

-Often Atheistic in Nature, but not always.

-A Modern Philosophy – Non-Greco-Roman.

-Underpinnings with Kierkegaard (1800ds), but came alive

  With Sartre’ (1950’s).

Kierkegaard:

            -Was A Thiest

            -God Designed us before he created us.

            -The creativity we have is part of God’s Plan.

            -God gave us Free Will that we can choose to do either good or evil with.

            -We control “Most” stuff we do.

                        -Occasionally God “Elects” someone to perform general function of his plan.

                        -Examples Kierkegaard gave were Abraham and Paul.

            -There wasn’t really “fate” as in Greco-Roman Culture, but limited election.

-For Kierkegaard:  Essence Precedes Existence.

Sartre’s Version:

            -Absence of Fate, therefore NOTHING is pre-determined.

                        -Therefore, EVERYTHING is by CHANCE

-There is TOTAL FREE WILL.

                        -When wrong occurs it is ridiculous to ask “why”.

-Nothing is a nice package of neat answers like what the Roman Stoics followed.

                        -Life is meaningless, other than the meaning we assign to it.

-Therefore we create our own purpose and meaning.

                        -We do this both individually and COLLECTIVELY.

 -We are not good or evil by nature, but by choice.

            -Since we create purpose and meaning, we are therefore RESPONSIBLE for our choices.

                        -No one can “make” you to be happy or angry.

                        -No action by anyone else can make you experience any emotion other than

                          what you choose.

            -Collective Choices are actually a result of individual choices, making all choices

              extremely important.

            -Therefore, complete freedom is a Huge Burdon, because we now know that we are

               Responsible and accountable. The only freedom we don’t have is the choice to not be

              free.  This is why Sartre’ made the famous statement: “You are Condemned to be

  free”. 

 So for Sartre’  Existence Precedes Essence. 

-You exist first, then you have essence.

-Unlike a paper-cutter who’s essence existed in someone’s mind first.

Deists:  Another Option of Determinism and Free Will

            -Deism has some fairly good American Company as most of the writers of the

              Constitution and the Bill of Rights were Deists to some degree.

            -They advocated for Free Will, but they were Theists, and they were somewhat

              moderate in their views of the argument.

            -God is a watch-maker who makes a watch and then throws it down and lets it

               tick on its own for the most part, but not all the time. 

-The idea of the Constitution was Inspired to some degree, but also man-designed.

-There’s mostly free-will, but there is also a divine plan.

       Determinism -------------------------------------------------------------------------------FREE WILL

      

Find the Answer                                                                                                     Create the Answer

              

                                                    Many Philosophers are Both

                                                                    (Dualism)

Buddhism

Siddharta Guatama (Around 560-480 BC – but no one really knows for sure)

                -Said to have lived in extreme luxury until his 30’s.

                -Said to have lived in unproductive self-indulgence.

-He became bored.

-He went on 4 secret trips to find out what the “real world was”.   Buddhism is about his findings

 on his trips, and interpretation of what other’s thought his sayings meant. 

-But really hardly anything is actually known about him.

Major Elements of Buddhism:

1)      Everyone Suffers.

a.       Physical Suffering is more obvious.

b.      Dukkha:  Anxiety, Anguish, Persistent Dissatisfaction.

2)      Suffering is caused by “Attachment”.  Attachment creates “Bad Karma”.

3)      “Enlightment” Cures suffering and creates “Good Karma”.

a.       Enlightment is like a journey on a raft.

b.      The raft exists in simple daily life.

c.       The raft moves toward Nirvana.

                                                                                                  i.      Nirvana is being unattached.

                                                                                                ii.      Nirvana is being “Totally Awake” (some define Buddhism by this).

                                                                                              iii.      Nirvana is found in the “Middle Way”.

                    Ascetic----------------------------------------------X---------------------------------------------------Indulgence

          (extreme self-denial)

                                                                                     The Desired “Middle Way”

                                                                           

                Other Things about Buddhism:

                                -Buddhism is the only major religion without a deity.  It is actually an argument whether

                              it really is a religion.

                                -Some consider being “Totally Awake” a good definition of Buddhism.

                                                -Being Totally Awake comes from Controlled Living.

                                                                -Simplicity.

-Meditation.

-Concentration.

-Denial (but not too much or you lose the Middle Way).

-Compassion.

                                -Buddhism is deterministic as everything has a cause; but 

                                  It does not have to be the same for everyone.

-There is a “thirst” or “desire” to either have or avoid.

                                -Cessation – The process of getting rid of the desire and creating a re-education of

                                  desire toward God and Enlightment.

                                -Anatta – No Self.  Self is a fiction that we invent.

                               

                                -Anicca – Nothing is permanent. 

  -Everything is in continuous change.

  -Process is all there is. 

  -Actions are greater than stability.

Differences and Similarities:

Depak Chopra – Present-Time Buddhist

                -Very Wealthy, Has His own Web Site, Has a camp for relaxation and Eastern medical techniques

                -His 7 Statements:

                                -Give to get.

                                -Detatch.

                                -Show Compassion and work off bad Karma.

                                -Create good Karma now.                           

-Do more with less.

                                -Bring all forces together with compassion at the core.

                                -Continue the Process.

Stephen Covey – Recently deceased American Christian - Organizational/Leadership Speaker:   He wrote:  The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People.   

                                -Be Proactive

                                -Begin with the End in Mind

-Put First Things First

                                -Think win-win.

                                -Seek First to Understand, then to be Understood.

                                -The Whole is Greater than the Sum of Its Parts – so Synergize.

                                -Renew.